PS 380: Experimental Psychology

As mentioned, using direct quotes is one option when you cite your sources. When you take the exact words from an original source and include them in your paper it is called quoting. You should use quotes to:

• Show an authority who supports your point of view
• Retain a specific or unique phrasing
• Present a particularly well-communicated idea whose meaning would be lost or changed if paraphrasing or summarizing

Quoting material. (2017). Plagiarism.org

When you use quotations be sure to:

• Copy the words exactly from the original source
• Use quotation marks
• Use a signal phrase such as "According to Smith" to introduce a direct quote
• Include an in-text citation usually with page numbers
• Check different citation styles for formatting longer quotes

Be aware:

In general, use direct quotations as infrequently as you can. Most of the time you should summarize or paraphrase information from your sources and incorporate that research with your own ideas. Remember the majority of the paper should be in your own words. When you do use quotations:

• Do not take the quote out of the context. The author's meaning should not change.
• Use multiple sources for your text. You do not want to have a paper that contains citations from just one or two sources.
• Be sure to use transitions so that your writing will logically flow from sentence to sentence and paragraph to paragraph.

(From Butler University's Avoiding Plagiarism instructional library guide.)

Further reading and examples of direct quoting:

Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Summarizing. (2022). Purdue University Online Writing Lab.

Summarizing, Paraphrasing, and Quoting. (n.d) The Writing Studio at the University of South Florida

Paraphrasing is another option when using information from your sources. Whereas quoting is using the original author's words verbatim, paraphrasing involves taking ideas or information and rephrasing them with your own words. How to Paraphrase. (2017). Plagiarism.org.

You should paraphrase when you want to:

• Include the author's ideas but not necessarily the language or sentence structure
• Avoiding using too many direct quotations
• Include an authority to support your ideas
• Provide more details than you would in a summary

When you paraphrase be sure to:

• Use your own words to convey the original author's ideas
• Change the sentence structure of the original text
• Include an in-text citation

Quoting, Paraphrasing, & Summarizing. (2019)  The University of Arizona Global Campus Writing Center.

Be aware:

• Do not copy the sentence and replace a few words; that is called "patchwriting" and may be considered plagiarism regardless of whether you provide a citation.
• Paraphrasing should still capture the essential meaning of the original work.
• Do not use quotation marks with paraphrasing.
• Paraphrased sentences may be longer or shorter than the original.

Examples of Paraphrasing:

How to Recognize Acceptable and Unacceptable paraphrases. (2022). Indiana University.

Mastering the Art of Scholarship. (2018). University of California-Davis. (Scroll down for examples)

Paraphrase: Write It in Your Own Words. (2022). Purdue University Online Writing Lab.

As mentioned, summarizing is one option when citing your sources. Similar to paraphrasing, summarizing involves using your own words to convey someone else's ideas. Whereas paraphrasing includes important details, summarizing presents only the general point(s) of the text. They are usually significantly shorter than the original text and take a broad, general view of the source material.

Summarizing, Paraphrasing, and Quoting. (2022). Purdue University Online Writing Lab.

When should you summarize?

• You want to convey the general idea of the source
• Broad, concise information is enough

Be aware:

• Summaries should be shorter than the original
• Use your own words
• Include a citation

Common knowledge is information that is usually very well-known and can be found in numerous places. In general, common knowledge does not need to be cited. Examples of common knowledge are the basic biography of an author, the dates of historical events, or widely acknowledged scientific facts.

Examples:

• John F. Kennedy was elected President of the United States in 1960.
• Emily Bronte was born on July 30th, 1818 in Northern England.
• The United States declared its independence on July 4th, 1776.
• The freezing point of water is 32 degrees.
• Eating food high in Omega-3s is good for you.

Not sure if it is common knowledge. Ask yourself the following questions:

• Is this information in numerous sources?
• Is it likely that many people know it?
• Is it available in a general reference source like a dictionary or encyclopedia?

If you answered yes to any of the questions, it is probably common knowledge.

Be aware:

• Common knowledge can be discipline specific.
• Opinions, interpretations, and unique terminology/phrasing are not common knowledge.
• Information that has appeared in only a couple of your sources should be cited.
• Information that is controversial or debated should be cited.

For further reading:

What is Common Knowledge? Academic Integrity at MIT.

The Exception: Common Knowledge. Harvard Guide to Using Sources. (2022)